From Muslim science
Scholars in Muslim civilisation observed the sky, measured the Earth, studied light and built instruments to keep the prayer times and find the qibla. Every entry here is sourced; where a story is popular but doubtful, we say so.
We say what these scholars did — developed, refined, described, built — and avoid claims of “firsts” that historians don't support.
Look at the sky nowPoint your phone at a star to see its name — many come from Arabic.Instruments
- Planispheric astrolabeAl-Fazari is credited with building the first astrolabe in the Islamic world in the 8th century. By the later 9th century the astrolabe was in use across the Islamic world, from Spain to India, and makers such as al-'Ijliyya of Aleppo, al-Khujandi of Rayy and Ibrahim ibn Sa'id al-Sahli of Toledo signed fine instruments. Muslim makers added plates and scales for Islamic needs: the times of prayer, the qibla, lunar calendars and gazetteers of city coordinates. They also developed universal, spherical and geared versions.16 · Where to see them
- Universal astrolabe (saphaea / al-safiha)An ordinary astrolabe needs a separate plate for each latitude. Al-Zarqali's universal plate projects the sky onto the plane through the solstices, so one plate serves every latitude. The idea was known in medieval Europe but little used there until Gemma Frisius revived it in the 16th century. Later makers such as Ibn al-Sarraj of Aleppo (1328/29) built still more versatile universal astrolabes.2 · Where to see them
- Spherical astrolabeInstead of projecting the sky onto a flat plate, the spherical astrolabe keeps it on a sphere. It was praised in Islamic written accounts but was hard to make, awkward to use and fragile. The only complete surviving example, signed by Musa and dated 1480/81, is in the History of Science Museum, Oxford.1 · Where to see them
- Quadrant (sine quadrant and astrolabic quadrant)Muslim timekeepers used quadrants to find prayer times and the qibla. In the later period, especially in the Ottoman world, the quadrant largely replaced the astrolabe; Ottoman quadrants often have astrolabic markings on one side and a sine grid on the other.2 · Where to see them
- Celestial globeMuslim makers produced engraved metal globes, often following al-Sufi's constellation figures; a 1362/63 globe in Oxford states this in its inscription. The oldest surviving Islamic celestial globe was made in Valencia in 1085 by Ibrahim ibn Sa'id al-Sahli and his son. Later centres included Mosul, Maragha, Mashhad and Lahore.5 · Where to see them
- Armillary sphereA book on the use of the armillary sphere is ascribed to al-Fazari in the 8th century. Large observational armillary spheres were used at the observatories of Maragha (13th century), Samarkand (15th century) and Istanbul (16th century); Ulugh Beg's star catalogue was probably based on observations with a zodiacal armillary.
- SundialMuslim scholars used trigonometry to design many new kinds of sundial and added lines for the times of prayer, especially the midday (zuhr) and afternoon ('asr) prayers; horizontal dials often show the qibla. The best-known example is the large marble sundial Ibn al-Shatir made for the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus in 1371/72; the dial on the minaret today is a 19th-century copy, and fragments of the original are reported to be in the Damascus museum.
- KamalArab navigators used it to measure the height of the Pole Star above the horizon in finger-widths (isba'), which told them their latitude. Ibn Majid recorded star altitudes in these units, and knots on the string could be tied for the latitudes of particular ports.
- Water clock (including al-Jazari's elephant clock)Al-Jazari described several water clocks in 1206 with full construction details. His elephant clock uses a perforated bowl that sinks in a hidden tank every half hour, triggering a ball release and moving figures; he wrote that its parts stood for Indian, African, Chinese, Persian, Greek and Islamic cultures.
- Qibla indicator (qibla compass)Qibla indicators turned the mathematical work of scholars such as al-Biruni and al-Khalili, who computed the direction of Mecca from city coordinates, into a portable tool. Many list dozens of places, some more than a hundred, with their coordinates or qibla angles.2 · Where to see them
- Monumental meridian instrument (mural sextant / meridian arc)Al-Khujandi's Fakhri sextant was a 60° meridian arc about 43 m in diameter, graduated to 10 arc-minutes. Ulugh Beg's observatory in Samarkand had an even larger meridian arc, built in a trench in the hill, whose marble-faced lower part survives.
Scholars
- Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazarifl. second half of the 8th century CE / 2nd century AH · Astronomy
- Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmic. 780–c. 850 CE · Mathematics، Astronomy، Geography
- Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Battanibefore 858–929 CE / before c. 244–317 AH · Astronomy، Mathematics
- 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi903–986 CE / 291–376 AH · Astronomy
- Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni973–c. 1050 CE / 362–c. 442 AH (sources give 1048 to after 1050 for his death) · Astronomy، Mathematics، Geography
- Abu 'Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)c. 965–c. 1040 CE / c. 354–c. 430 AH · Optics، Mathematics، Astronomy
- Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Zarqali (Azarquiel)d. 1100 CE / 493 AH · Astronomy، Engineering
- al-'Ijliyya bint al-'Ijlifl. 10th century CE / 4th century AH · Astronomy، Engineering
- 'Ala' al-Din 'Ali ibn Ibrahim ibn al-Shatir1304–c. 1375 CE / 704–777 AH · Astronomy، Engineering
- Nasir al-Din al-Tusi1201–1274 CE / 597–672 AH · Astronomy، Mathematics
- Ulugh Beg1394–1449 CE / 796–853 AH · Astronomy، Mathematics
- Badi' al-Zaman Abu al-'Izz Isma'il ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazarifl. late 12th–early 13th century; completed his book in 1206 CE / 602 AH · Engineering
- Ahmad ibn Majidc. 1432–c. 1500 CE / c. 835–c. 906 AH · Navigation، Astronomy
- Abu 'Ali al-Husayn ibn Sina (Avicenna)980–1037 CE / 370–428 AH · Medicine
- al-Sharif al-Idrisi1100–1165/66 CE / 493–560 AH · Geography، Cartography
- Abu al-Wafa' al-Buzjani940–997 or 998 CE / 328–387 or 388 AH · Mathematics، Astronomy
- Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Rasid1526–1585 CE / 932–993 AH · Astronomy، Engineering، Mathematics، Optics
- Abu al-Hasan 'Ali ibn 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Yunusc. 950–1009 CE / d. 399 AH · Astronomy، Mathematics
- Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr al-Khujandic. 945–1000 CE · Astronomy، Mathematics، Engineering
- Shams al-Din al-Khalilifl. c. 1365 CE / c. 766 AH · Astronomy، Mathematics
- Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid al-Kashic. 1380–1429 CE / d. 832 AH · Mathematics، Astronomy
- Ibn Bassalfl. 11th century CE / 5th century AH · Botany
- Abu Zakariyya Yahya ibn al-'Awwam al-Ishbilifl. late 12th century CE / 6th century AH · Botany
- Abu Hanifa Ahmad ibn Dawud al-Dinawarid. c. 895 CE / c. 282 AH · Botany
- Ibrahim ibn Sa'id al-Sahli al-Wazzanfl. c. 1050–1090 CE / 5th century AH · Astronomy، Engineering
Works
- Book of the Constellations of the Fixed Stars (Kitab suwar al-kawakib al-thabita)c. 964 CE / c. 353 AH
- The Mas'udic Canon (al-Qanun al-Mas'udi)c. 1030s CE (after 1030) / 5th century AH
- The Determination of the Coordinates of Places (Tahdid nihayat al-amakin li-tashih masafat al-masakin)begun 1018, completed 1025 CE / 409–416 AH, Ghazna
- Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir)early 11th century CE (often dated c. 1011–1021)
- The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing (al-Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wa'l-muqabala)c. 820 CE (reign of al-Ma'mun, 813–833)
- The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices (al-Jami' bayn al-'ilm wa'l-'amal al-nafi' fi sina'at al-hiyal)1206 CE / 602 AH, Diyarbakir
- The Book of Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands (Nuzhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq), the 'Tabula Rogeriana'1154 CE / 548 AH, Palermo
- The Canon of Medicine (al-Qanun fi al-tibb)early 11th century CE / early 5th century AH
- The Toledan Tablessecond half of the 11th century CE / 5th century AH, Toledo
- The Sultan's Astronomical Tables (Zij-i Sultani)c. 1437–1439 CE, Samarkand
- Book of Useful Information on the Principles and Rules of Navigation (Kitab al-Fawa'id fi usul 'ilm al-bahr wa'l-qawa'id)1490 CE / 895 AH
- The Sabian Tables (al-Zij al-Sabi')early 10th century CE, from observations made 877–918
- The Great Hakimi Tables (al-Zij al-Hakimi al-kabir)completed before 1009 CE / 399 AH, Cairo
- Memoir on Astronomy (al-Tadhkira fi 'ilm al-hay'a)13th century CE (Maragha period)
- Book of Agriculture (Kitab al-filaha)probably late 12th century CE / 6th century AH, Seville
- The Book of Plants (Kitab al-Nabat)9th century CE / 3rd century AH
- The Book of Concision and Clarity (Kitab al-qasd wa'l-bayan)11th century CE / 5th century AH
- The Key of Arithmetic (Miftah al-hisab)completed 2 March 1427 CE / 830 AH, Samarkand
- On the Geometric Constructions Necessary for the Artisan (Kitab fima yahtaju ilayhi al-sani' min a'mal al-handasa)late 10th century CE (after c. 990); authorship and form debated
Where to see them
Museum objects whose records we checked. Displays change, so check with the museum before a visit.
History of Science Museum, University of Oxford · Oxford
- Spherical astrolabe, the only complete example known to survive · Spherical astrolabe · 1480/81 CE
- Astrolabe with geared calendar, containing the oldest complete gear train known · Planispheric astrolabe · 1221/22 CE / 618 AH
- Astrolabe, described by the museum as the earliest known Persian astrolabe · Planispheric astrolabe · 984/85 or 1003/04 CE
- Astrolabe, the oldest in the Oxford collection · Planispheric astrolabe · late 9th century CE (approximate)
- Astrolabe made in Toledo, the earliest in the Oxford collection made in Europe · Planispheric astrolabe · Shawwal 460 AH / August 1068 CE
- Astrolabe with a 'universal lamina' (universal plate) · Universal astrolabe (saphaea / al-safiha) · 724 AH / 1327/28 CE
- European astrolabe with a universal projection of the type developed by al-Zarqali · Universal astrolabe (saphaea / al-safiha) · c. 1400 CE
- Celestial globe whose inscription says the constellations follow al-Sufi's Book of the Fixed Stars · Celestial globe · 764 AH / 1362/63 CE
The Metropolitan Museum of Art · New York
- Planispheric astrolabe · Planispheric astrolabe · 1065 AH / 1654–55 CE
- Astrolabe of 'Umar ibn Yusuf ibn 'Umar ibn 'Ali ibn Rasul al-Muzaffari (the Rasulid prince, later Sultan al-Ashraf 'Umar) · Planispheric astrolabe · 690 AH / 1291 CE
Museum of Islamic Art, Qatar Museums · Doha
- Planispheric astrolabe with 33 named star pointers · Planispheric astrolabe · 374 AH / 984–85 CE
- Gilded brass planispheric astrolabe · Planispheric astrolabe · 1065 AH / 1654–55 CE
- Rectangular sundial and qibla indicator listing 23 cities · Qibla indicator (qibla compass) · 1800–1900 CE (Qajar period)
- Celestial globe · Celestial globe · 1049 AH / 1639 CE
The British Museum · London
- Large brass astrolabe inlaid with silver and copper, with figural constellation designs · Planispheric astrolabe · 633 AH / 1235–36 CE
- Brass celestial globe inlaid with silver, showing the 48 constellations named in Arabic · Celestial globe · 674 AH / 1275–76 CE
- Astrolabic quadrant for latitude 33°30' (Damascus), made for the timekeeper of the Umayyad Mosque · Quadrant (sine quadrant and astrolabic quadrant) · 734 AH / 1333–34 CE
National Maritime Museum, Royal Museums Greenwich · London
- Round brass qibla indicator with compass, listing 151 places with their coordinates · Qibla indicator (qibla compass) · 18th century CE
- Ottoman quadrant: astrolabic quadrant on the front, sine quadrant on the back, with its case and instructions in Turkish and Arabic · Quadrant (sine quadrant and astrolabic quadrant) · 1813 CE
- Persian astrolabe with a gazetteer of 24 places, seven latitude plates and a sine quadrant on the back · Planispheric astrolabe · 1228 AH / 1813 CE (from a chronogram)
The Khalili Collections (Islamic Art) · London
- Monumental planispheric astrolabe made for the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (52.6 cm diameter) · Planispheric astrolabe · 1648–58 CE
- Planispheric astrolabe · Planispheric astrolabe · 1060 AH / 1650–51 CE
Museum für Islamische Kunst, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin · Berlin
- Cast astrolabe listing 86 places from Morocco to China and 49 fixed stars · Planispheric astrolabe · 1651–1700 CE
Museo Galileo · Florence
- Small plane astrolabe with an Islamic lunar calendar on the back · Planispheric astrolabe · 496 AH / 1102–03 CE
- Gilt brass plane astrolabe with plates for latitudes between Persia and the Black Sea · Planispheric astrolabe · 10th century CE (probably before 1000, on astronomical evidence)
- Celestial globe, described by the museum as the oldest Arabic celestial globe known · Celestial globe · 478 AH / 1085 CE
Victoria and Albert Museum · London
- Celestial globe with about 1,018 stars marked by inlaid silver points · Celestial globe · 1640–41 CE
National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution · Washington, DC
- Persian planispheric astrolabe with five plates · Planispheric astrolabe · c. 1715 CE